OK
https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/same-sex-marriage-global-comparisons
Websites
Runtime: 4.4s
On April 19, 2025, 04:34 PM UTC, https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/same-sex-marriage-global-comparisons was accessible when tested on AS23889 in Mauritius.
Failures
HTTP Experiment
null
DNS Experiment
null
Control
null
DNS Queries
Resolver:
172.69.92.71
Query:
IN A www.cfr.org
Engine:
system
Name
Class
TTL
Type
DATA
@
IN
A
104.18.9.238
@
IN
A
104.18.8.238
Query:
IN AAAA www.cfr.org
Engine:
system
Name
Class
TTL
Type
DATA
@
IN
AAAA
2606:4700::6812:8ee
@
IN
AAAA
2606:4700::6812:9ee
TCP Connections
Connection to 2606:4700::6812:8ee:443 was blocked.
Connection to 2606:4700::6812:9ee:443 was blocked.
Connection to 104.18.9.238:443 succeeded.
Connection to 104.18.8.238:443 succeeded.
HTTP Requests
URL
GET https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/marriage-equality-global-comparisons
Response Headers
Access-Control-Allow-Headers:x-requested-with, Content-Type, origin, authorization, accept, client-security-tokenAccess-Control-Allow-Methods:POST, GET, OPTIONSAccess-Control-Allow-Origin:*Access-Control-Max-Age:1000Age:83977Cache-Control:max-age=86400, publicCf-Cache-Status:DYNAMICCf-Ray:932dceebfe1e3877-MRUContent-Language:enContent-Type:text/html; charset=UTF-8Date:Sat, 19 Apr 2025 16:34:15 GMTExpires:Sun, 19 Nov 1978 05:00:00 GMTLast-Modified:Fri, 18 Apr 2025 17:14:36 GMTLink:<//cdn.cfr.org>; rel=preconnect; crossoriginServer:cloudflareServer-Timing:cfCacheStatus;desc="DYNAMIC"Strict-Transport-Security:max-age=15552000; includeSubDomains; preloadVary:Accept-Encoding, Cookie, X-Consumer-ID, Cookie, CookieVia:1.1 varnish, 1.1 varnishX-Cache:HIT, HITX-Cache-Hits:1, 0X-Consumer-Id:9e2f7b1b-2018-49c3-abd6-20fa51074864X-Content-Type-Options:nosniffX-Drupal-Cache:MISSX-Drupal-Dynamic-Cache:MISSX-Generator:Drupal 10 (https://www.drupal.org)X-Pantheon-Styx-Hostname:styx-fe4-a-5f5496676d-9kphsX-Robots-Tag:allX-Served-By:cache-chi-klot8100073-CHI, cache-qpg120096-QPGX-Styx-Req-Id:9aae8f1a-1c78-11f0-9198-563a117c8b25X-Timer:S1745080456.678302,VS0,VE4
Response Body
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en" dir="ltr" prefix="og: https://ogp.me/ns#">
<head>
<link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="//cdn.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/favicon-32x32.png" sizes="32x32" />
<link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="//cdn.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/favicon-16x16.png" sizes="16x16" />
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="//cdn.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/apple-touch-icon.png" />
<meta property="fb:pages" content="10234472029" />
<meta property="fb:app_id" content="1202896923085736" />
<meta name="google-site-verification" content="ed21dLJA4q-k2GnrORmTFP8mc97sOOWjd-ZkJbmPCgw" />
<meta name="msvalidate.01" content="846D62D6CE4E94B1C328BE585F36F0DE" />
<title>Marriage Equality: Global Comparisons | Council on Foreign Relations</title>
<meta charset="utf-8" />
<meta property="sailthru.tags" content="author-cfr-org-editors, tag-human-rights, tag-lgbtq-, tag-gender, tag-social-issues, tag-civil-society, tag-global" />
<script>var dataLayer = [{"bio":["staff"],"republish":"no","programName":"Renewing America","keywords":["LGBTQ+","Gender"],"topic":["Human Rights","Social Issues","Civil Society"],"region":["Global"],"nodeidDl":"227998"}];</script>
<style>/* @see https://github.com/aFarkas/lazysizes#broken-image-symbol */.js img.lazyload:not([src]) { visibility: hidden; }/* @see https://github.com/aFarkas/lazysizes#automatically-setting-the-sizes-attribute */.js img.lazyloaded[data-sizes=auto] { display: block; width: 100%; }</style>
<meta name="description" content="A growing number of countries are legalizing same-sex marriage amid a steady advance in rights for LGBTQ+ people, but opposition remains strong in many others." />
<meta name="keywords" content="Human Rights,LGBTQ+,Gender,Social Issues,Civil Society,Global" />
<link rel="canonical" href="https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/marriage-equality-global-comparisons" />
<link rel="image_src" href="Same-Sex Couple in Northern Ireland" />
<meta property="og:site_name" content="Council on Foreign Relations" />
<meta property="og:type" content="article" />
<meta property="og:title" content="Marriage Equality: Global Comparisons" />
<meta property="og:image" content="https://www.cfr.org/sites/default/files/image/2022/12/same-sex-marriage-OG.png" />
<meta property="og:image:alt" content="A map of LGBTQ+ rights and protections by country." />
<meta property="og:street_address" content="58 East 68th Street" />
<meta property="og:locality" content="New York" />
<meta property="og:region" content="NY" />
<meta property="og:postal_code" content="10065" />
<meta property="og:country_name" content="USA" />
<meta property="og:phone_number" content="1.212.434.9400" />
<meta property="og:fax_number" content="1.212.434.9800" />
<meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" />
<meta name="twitter:description" content="Introduction Thirty-three countries, including the United States, have legalized same-sex marriage, and some others recognize same-sex civil unions. Yet same-sex marriage remains banned in many countries, and the expansion of broader LGBTQ+ rights has been uneven globally. International organizations, including the United Nations, have issued resolutions in support of LGBTQ+ rights, but human rights groups say these organizations have limited power to enforce them. International Norms, Democracy, and LGBTQ+ Rights Rights monitors find a strong correlation between LGBTQ+ rights and democratic societies; the research and advocacy group Freedom House lists nearly all the countries with marriage equality—when same-sex couples have the same legal right to marriage as different-sex couples—as “free.” “Wherever you see restrictions on individuals—in terms of speech, expression, or freedom of assembly—you see a crackdown on LGBT rights,” says Julie Dorf, senior advisor to the Council for Global Equality, a Washington-based group that promotes LGBTQ+ rights in U.S. foreign policy. “It’s the canary in the coal mine,” she says. Javier Corrales, a professor at Amherst College who focuses on LGBTQ+ rights in Latin America, points to income levels and the influence of religion in politics, as well as the overall strength of democracy, to explain regional divergences [PDF]. The World This Week CFR President Mike Froman analyzes the most important foreign policy story of the week. Plus, get the latest news and insights from the Council’s experts. Every Friday Url Email View all newsletters > The World This Week CFR President Mike Froman analyzes the most important foreign policy story of the week. Plus, get the latest news and insights from the Council’s experts. Every Friday Think Global Health A curation of original analyses, data visualizations, and commentaries, examining the debates and efforts to improve health worldwide. Weekly. By entering your email and clicking subscribe, you're agreeing to receive announcements from CFR about our products and services, as well as invitations to CFR events. You are also agreeing to our Privacy Policy and Terms of Use. View all newsletters > The UN Human Rights Council, expressing “grave concern” over violence and discrimination against individuals based on sexual orientation and gender identity, commissioned the body’s first study on the topic [PDF] in 2011. In 2014, the council passed a resolution to combat anti-LGBTQ+ violence and discrimination. Two years later, the United Nations appointed its first-ever independent expert on sexual orientation and gender identity. “What is important here is the gradual building of consensus,” says Graeme Reid, director of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender rights program at Human Rights Watch. “There’s an accumulation of moral pressure on member states to at least address the most overt forms of discrimination or violence.” Activists have focused on antiviolence and antidiscrimination campaigns rather than marriage equality. “There’s no sensible diplomat who would think that pushing same-sex marriage on a country that’s not ready for it is a good idea,” says Dorf. She adds that not all countries with marriage equality allow same-sex couples to jointly adopt and cautions against equating the right to marry with freedom from discrimination. Still, antidiscrimination laws are gaining traction worldwide. In 2020, eighty-one countries and territories, including some that retain sodomy laws, had protections against employment discrimination [PDF] based on gender identity or sexual orientation. United States In 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Obergefell v. Hodges that the Constitution grants same-sex couples the right to marry. The 5-4 ruling effectively legalized same-sex marriage in the thirteen states where it remained banned and extended to U.S. territories. In 2022, amid fears that the Supreme Court could rule to let states deny the validity of same-sex marriages, Congress passed and President Joe Biden signed into law the Respect for Marriage Act, which recognizes such marriages at the federal level. That year, 71 percent of Americans polled approved of same-sex marriage, up from 27 percent in 1996. Despite the increase in public support for same-sex marriage, debate continues between advocates of legal equality and individuals and institutions that object to marriage equality on the basis of religious belief. In 2018, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of a Colorado baker who refused to make a wedding cake for a same-sex couple because of his religious beliefs, violating the state’s civil rights law. However, the court chose not to issue a broader ruling on whether businesses have a right to deny goods or services to LGBTQ+ people for religious reasons. In 2020, the court ruled that a 1964 civil rights law prohibiting sex discrimination in the workplace also applies to discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. The ruling protected LGBTQ+ employees from being fired in more than half of states where no such legal protections previously existed. Dive Deeper The Changing Landscape of Global LGBTQ+ Rights However, the Supreme Court’s decision in 2022 to overturn Roe v. Wade, a case that used the fourteenth amendment to protect the right to have an abortion, sparked some concerns that it would similarly overturn its 2015 decision on marriage equality. In his concurring opinion on the 2022 ruling, Justice Clarence Thomas wrote that Obergefell v. Hodges was “demonstrably erroneous” and that the court had a duty to overrule this and other decisions. Europe More than half of the countries that have marriage equality are in Western Europe. Same-sex marriage has been legalized in the Netherlands (2001), Belgium (2003), Spain (2005), Norway (2009), Sweden (2009), Portugal (2010), Iceland (2010), Denmark (2012), France (2013), the United Kingdom (2013), Luxembourg (2015), Ireland (2015), Finland (2017), Malta (2017), Germany (2017), Austria (2019), and Switzerland (2021). In Italy, the parliament approved civil unions for same-sex couples in 2016, but same-sex marriage is not legal. Lawmakers in Andorra voted in 2022 to convert all same-sex civil unions to civil marriages and legalize same-sex marriage. The changes will take effect in early 2023. Meanwhile, Slovenia made history in 2022 as the first country of the former Yugoslavia to legalize marriage and adoption for same-sex couples. “More than half of the countries that have marriage equality are in Western Europe.” Despite this, same-sex marriage remains restricted in much of Central and Eastern Europe. A 2019 Pew Research Center poll found that support for legal recognition of same-sex marriage was 28 percent in Lithuania and 14 percent in Ukraine. Support in Poland and Hungary has increased in recent years, to 47 percent and 49 percent, respectively, though both maintain bans on same-sex marriage. At least ten other countries in Central and Eastern Europe have such prohibitions. Estonia allows civil unions, though popular support for marriage equality in the Baltic states is low. The Czech Republic and Hungary recognize same-sex partnerships. In 2018, a Budapest court ruled that same-sex marriages performed abroad must be recognized as partnerships. Since then, however, Hungarian lawmakers and populist Prime Minister Viktor Orban have passed several anti-LGBTQ+ laws, including ones that prohibit same-sex couples from adopting children and ban any content deemed to promote being gay or transgender from being distributed to people under the age of eighteen. The European Union (EU) condemned the laws as discriminatory. In 2013, Russia made it a crime to distribute “propaganda of nontraditional sexual relationships among minors.” Dozens of people have been fined for violations, including participating in protests and sharing articles on social media. Human rights groups say the law is a tool for anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination, and Europe’s top human rights court ruled that it is discriminatory and violates freedom of expression. In 2022, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed into law an expansion of the ban. It prohibited the distribution of such material to adults, made it illegal to treat same-sex relationships as “normal,” and increased penalties against people who violate the law. Meanwhile, in Chechnya, a semiautonomous republic within Russia, dozens of men suspected of being gay have been detained, tortured, and even killed in two separate official crackdowns since 2017. The EU does not require its members to recognize same-sex marriage, though a 2018 ruling [PDF] by the EU’s top court says they must uphold same-sex couples’ rights to freedom of movement and residence. In 2021, the court ruled that all EU countries must recognize children of same-sex couples, even countries that do not have marriage equality. The ruling came after Bulgaria refused to grant identity documents to the daughter of a same-sex couple. A 2013 European Parliament report on human rights and democracy “encourages” EU institutions and member states to recognize same-sex marriage or civil unions as “a political, social and human and civil rights issue” [PDF]; however, the EU is not able to impose such policy changes on its members. Americas In 2005, Canada became the first country in the Western Hemisphere to legalize same-sex marriage. It was followed by Argentina in 2010, Brazil and Uruguay in 2013, Mexico in 2015, Colombia in 2016, Ecuador in 2019, Costa Rica in 2020, and Chile in 2021. The only Central American country to recognize same-sex couples is Costa Rica, though some others in the region have limited antidiscrimination protections. Support for marriage equality varies across the region. According to a 2016 survey [PDF] by the International LGBTI Association (ILGA), 54 percent of Canadians, 48 percent of Chileans, and 57 percent of Argentines were in favor of legalizing same-sex marriage. In Central America, support was much lower: 33 percent of Costa Ricans, 28 percent of Nicaraguans, and 27 percent of Ecuadorians supported legalizing it. In 2018, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled in favor of marriage equality, but the decision has not spurred much action among member states. Support for legalizing same-sex marriage also remains low in the Caribbean, at just 16 percent in Jamaica and 23 percent in the Dominican Republic, according to the ILGA. Bermuda, a British territory, legalized domestic partnerships for same-sex couples in 2017, but the government fought to reissue a ban. Same-sex marriage remains illegal there. However, in 2022, Antigua and Barbuda, Bermuda, and St. Kitts and Nevis struck down laws criminalizing gay sex. The governments of Bolivia, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Paraguay have enacted constitutional bans on same-sex marriage. Although Brazil has legalized same-sex marriage, in 2019, then-President Jair Bolsonaro removed the Human Rights Ministry’s ability to consider LGBTQ+ concerns. He drew criticism from LGBTQ+ advocacy groups during his campaign over homophobic remarks. Cuba, where homosexuality was once punished by internment in forced-labor camps, has changed markedly in recent years. The National Assembly passed an antidiscrimination law in 2013, and a new constitution in 2019 removed language defining marriage as between a man and a woman. In September 2022, voters approved a referendum legalizing same-sex marriage. Pacific Rim Australia and New Zealand are the only Pacific Rim countries in which same-sex marriage is legal. Same-sex marriage became legal in Taiwan in 2019, as the legislature implemented a ruling the top court issued two years earlier. In China, 43 percent of people supported legalizing same-sex marriage in 2021. A district in Tokyo began recognizing same-sex unions in 2015, amid rapidly shifting public opinion in Japan. In 2022, the city adopted legislation granting same-sex couples some privileges enjoyed by married couples. A court in Sapporo ruled a year earlier that the Japanese government’s refusal to recognize same-sex marriages is unconstitutional, while a court in Osaka ruled that it is constitutional. In a 2022 survey, public support for same-sex marriage reached nearly 65 percent. In 2022, a court in Seoul, South Korea, ruled against recognizing same-sex partnerships and rejected a same-sex couple’s claim to spousal health insurance, even though public opinion supports antidiscrimination legislation. More than a third of people in South Korea supported legalizing same-sex marriage in 2021. “Australia and New Zealand are the only Pacific Rim countries in which same-sex marriage is legal.” Lawmakers in Thailand and Vietnam have considered bills to legalize same-sex marriage or civil partnerships. However, in 2021, Thailand’s Constitutional Court ruled that the nation’s marriage law—which only recognizes marriage between a man and a woman—does not violate the constitution. The country’s parliament is considering two proposals that will essentially give lawmakers a choice between permitting civil partnerships for same-sex couples and allowing them to marry. In the Philippines, President Ferdinand Marcos Jr. has said that if there is popular support for same-sex unions, it is up to lawmakers to legalize it. However, he has maintained his own opposition to same-sex marriage. Same-sex relations between men are banned in parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, and Myanmar. Rights groups have reported increased threats and violence against LGBTQ+ people in Indonesia since 2016, including discriminatory comments by several public officials. Singaporean Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong vowed in 2022 to decriminalize gay sex but said this would not change the status quo on marriage. In Brunei, gay sex is punishable by stoning to death, though following international outcry, the government said it won’t enforce the law. South and Central Asia Same-sex relations are illegal in much of South and Central Asia [PDF], including in Bangladesh and Pakistan. In 2018, India lifted a colonial-era ban on gay sex, and in 2020, Bhutan moved to decriminalize it. In 2022, India’s Supreme Court ruled to expand the definition of family to include “atypical” families, such as same-sex couples, though same-sex marriage remains illegal. Nepal has enacted some protections against discrimination based on sexual orientation, and in 2015 a government-appointed panel recommended that lawmakers legalize same-sex marriage. Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan allow people to register as a third gender in official documents. There is little information on public attitudes toward homosexuality in South and Central Asia. ILGA found 35 percent of Indians and 30 percent of Pakistanis in 2016 thought same-sex marriage should be legal. Support in Kazakhstan stood at 12 percent. Support for same-sex marriage has historically been low in Afghanistan. According to a 2022 Human Rights Watch report, the Taliban’s takeover in 2021 “dramatically worsened” LGBTQ+ people’s lives, with individuals reporting attacks, sexual assaults, and direct threats against them or their families. Middle East and North Africa Same-sex relations are illegal in much of the region and are punishable by death in Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen. Algeria, Morocco, Oman, Syria, Tunisia, and Gaza have laws explicitly prohibiting same-sex acts. When Qatar hosted the 2022 FIFA World Cup, its anti-LGBTQ+ laws were widely criticized; it prohibits gay sex, and security forces have assaulted transgender women and other LGBTQ+ people, according to Human Rights Watch. In 2018, Lebanese courts set a potential precedent for the decriminalization of gay sex, but the country continued to crack down on peaceful LGBTQ+ gatherings in 2021 and banned them outright in 2022. Israel recognizes same-sex marriages performed in other countries, but a bill that would have legalized same-sex marriages failed to pass in the Knesset, Israel’s legislative assembly, in 2018. Same-sex couples enjoy civil benefits, including residency permits for the partners of Israeli citizens, and they were granted the right to use surrogates to have children in 2022. Israel stands apart from its neighbors in public attitudes toward same-sex couples: according to the 2016 ILGA survey, 49 percent of Israelis said same-sex marriage should be legal, compared to 19 percent of respondents in the United Arab Emirates, 16 percent in Egypt, and 14 percent in both Jordan and Morocco. Sub-Saharan Africa South Africa is the only sub-Saharan African country where same-sex couples can marry. The parliament legalized same-sex marriage in 2006, less than a decade after the constitutional court struck down laws banning sex between men. The postapartheid constitution was the world’s first to protect people on the basis of sexual orientation, though the 2016 ILGA poll found only 40 percent of South Africans were in favor of legalizing same-sex marriage, and human rights monitors have reported failures by security forces to uphold rights of lesbians and transgender men. “South Africa is the only sub-Saharan African country where same-sex couples can marry.” Same-sex relations are illegal on much of the continent and are punishable by death in Mauritania and Sudan, as well as in parts of Nigeria and Somalia. Polling by Afrobarometer between 2016 and 2018 found that 78 percent [PDF] of Africans across thirty-four countries were intolerant of homosexuality. Although the African Union’s human rights commission adopted a resolution condemning violence against LGBTQ+ people in 2014, a group of African nations attempted to suspend the appointment of a UN expert charged with investigating anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination in 2016. In Ghana, where same-sex relations are an imprisonable offense, draft legislation would make identifying as gay or an LGBTQ+ ally a felony. However, there have been recent advances: the Afrobarometer poll found that majorities in three countries in addition to South Africa—Cape Verde, Mauritius, and Namibia—are tolerant of homosexuality. In 2015 Mozambique decriminalized same-sex relations, followed by the Seychelles in 2016, Angola and Botswana in 2019, and Gabon in 2020. And in recent years, courts in Kenya, Uganda, and Zambia have ruled in favor of LGBTQ+ advocacy groups." />
<meta name="twitter:site" content="@CFR_org" />
<meta name="twitter:title" content="Marriage Equality: Global Comparisons" />
<meta name="twitter:image" content="https://www.cfr.org/sites/default/files/image/2022/12/same-sex-marriage-OG.png" />
<meta name="Generator" content="Drupal 10 (https://www.drupal.org)" />
<meta name="MobileOptimized" content="width" />
<meta name="HandheldFriendly" content="true" />
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, maximum-scale=1.0,user-scalable=0" />
<style>div#sliding-popup, div#sliding-popup .eu-cookie-withdraw-banner, .eu-cookie-withdraw-tab {background: #0779bf} div#sliding-popup.eu-cookie-withdraw-wrapper { background: transparent; } #sliding-popup h1, #sliding-popup h2, #sliding-popup h3, #sliding-popup p, #sliding-popup label, #sliding-popup div, .eu-cookie-compliance-more-button, .eu-cookie-compliance-secondary-button, .eu-cookie-withdraw-tab { color: #ffffff;} .eu-cookie-withdraw-tab { border-color: #ffffff;}</style>
<script type="application/ld+json">{
"@context": "https://schema.org",
"@graph": [
{
"@type": "NewsArticle",
"headline": "Marriage Equality: Global Comparisons",
"name": "Marriage Equality: Global Comparisons",
"about": "Human Rights, LGBTQ+, Gender, Social Issues, Civil Society, Global",
"description": "A growing number of countries are legalizing same-sex marriage amid a steady advance in rights for LGBTQ+ people, but opposition remains strong in many others.",
"image": {
"@type": "ImageObject",
"representativeOfPage": "True",
"url": "//cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/styles/open_graph/public/image/2020/06/samesexmarriage_0.jpg"
},
"datePublished": "2022-12-22T09:30:00-0500",
"dateModified": "2022-12-22T14:30:00-0500",
"publisher": {
"@type": "Organization",
"name": "Council on Foreign Relations",
"url": "https://www.cfr.org/",
"sameAs": [
"https://www.facebook.com/councilonforeignrelations",
"https://twitter.com/CFR_org",
"https://www.youtube.com/user/cfr",
"https://www.instagram.com/cfr_org/",
"https://www.linkedin.com/company/council-on-foreign-relations"
],
"logo": {
"@type": "ImageObject",
"url": "https://www.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-logo-og.png"
}
},
"mainEntityOfPage": "https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/marriage-equality-global-comparisons",
"author": {
"@type": "Person",
"name": "CFR.org Editors",
"url": "https://www.cfr.org/bio/cfrorg-editors"
}
}
]
}</script>
<meta property="og:url" content="https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/marriage-equality-global-comparisons" />
<meta property="og:description" content="A growing number of countries are legalizing same-sex marriage amid a steady advance in rights for LGBTQ+ people, but opposition remains strong in many others." />
<link rel="icon" href="//cdn.cfr.org/themes/custom/cfr_theme/favicon.ico" type="image/vnd.microsoft.icon" />
<script>(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0];var j=d.createElement(s);var dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl+'';j.async=true;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-KFS3NQ');</script>
<link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/sites/default/files/css/css_AU7_j7KWEzDuwNtddt9GOa6t_XXG3-BGCtSRrmKf26M.css?delta=0&language=en&theme=cfr_theme&include=eJyNU9tynDAM_SFYf0QynfS1l2ePsLXgxLaIJJOhX1_BtpQ0O52-MOgc3Y8crux1woJuzDRA7oE1hYxdMOIGuQJ8Rcw7NFHBGUb0gkETVXEQF6gBo4emFKjMGfUWLpCyTtzcMywggdOsHubkcxoYeO0iKGRYkd2EeUY-AQNOsCRi6TL8WN326QSBw_SujNtbv5RUU4F8CSJdIEYXuc1mv-tIVlEsbgDBDpsPRC8J_U6nbQB3D_QRr9CydjH6ozuvRFncYX-2vHLPIzRRKo-pYBXb1XdBfgDFkbbhP7rPFAOIfrJpZPqHw1c1ke7zoo9W4AsuaSt4z2dJEckyaPuflh-oKlZ9Qog5VbwbwWgl4zcL2VU3SfyEph6K_r2jcFzbMPYm2Yi9vCUN04kJwLEfmdrcWeWkq8cyYDR83g7uJnCytriaxM-vDXm9XIlLt3mECW4SM_42j78TNhKNGS8H4LGeWphbzq-NFE_Yr3fRS06lr7CcKHsmIttBn8aD8LLNUKOd9YckZySjafnHts1tIZIU30wpv_M2btKfkbJwZA" />
<link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="/sites/default/files/css/css_TbkNHdPDMCHdW0fn7HcBgem4bRvxFHMSrL7U8HTnRg4.css?delta=1&language=en&theme=cfr_theme&include=eJyNU9tynDAM_SFYf0QynfS1l2ePsLXgxLaIJJOhX1_BtpQ0O52-MOgc3Y8crux1woJuzDRA7oE1hYxdMOIGuQJ8Rcw7NFHBGUb0gkETVXEQF6gBo4emFKjMGfUWLpCyTtzcMywggdOsHubkcxoYeO0iKGRYkd2EeUY-AQNOsCRi6TL8WN326QSBw_SujNtbv5RUU4F8CSJdIEYXuc1mv-tIVlEsbgDBDpsPRC8J_U6nbQB3D_QRr9CydjH6ozuvRFncYX-2vHLPIzRRKo-pYBXb1XdBfgDFkbbhP7rPFAOIfrJpZPqHw1c1ke7zoo9W4AsuaSt4z2dJEckyaPuflh-oKlZ9Qog5VbwbwWgl4zcL2VU3SfyEph6K_r2jcFzbMPYm2Yi9vCUN04kJwLEfmdrcWeWkq8cyYDR83g7uJnCytriaxM-vDXm9XIlLt3mECW4SM_42j78TNhKNGS8H4LGeWphbzq-NFE_Yr3fRS06lr7CcKHsmIttBn8aD8LLNUKOd9YckZySjafnHts1tIZIU30wpv_M2btKfkbJwZA" />
<script type="application/json" data-drupal-selector="drupal-settings-json">{"path":{"baseUrl":"\/","pathPrefix":"","currentPath":"node\/227998","currentPathIsAdmin":false,"isFront":false,"currentLanguage":"en"},"pluralDelimiter":"\u0003","suppressDeprecationErrors":true,"ajaxPageState":{"libraries":"eJyNU9tunUAM_CE4-xGJqvY1bZ9XZtcHnOyF2F4i-vU1JD3iNKjqC4IZG3vGdoBZwwRuAMEuXNmPqQ6QXAa-IqYdmmrGGUb0gkGpFnEQFygBo4emNdQ8J9T3dAFKOnFzz7CABKZZPczkEw0MvO4xOqGfEBZCURdBIcGK_E0xyx8-o4OErMdvVgoJPyO9JMp9geVADRBeRq6tROQjPPaUTUkvb2SyD0wAjv2WMR_Ady_6z5WNEDnIMcgE3deaW0qvrW6-VEYXuc2QLveGbQQVRS5GPb825PVyrZy7mytuwMmcqiwHbMI0W60Y_Q3zWmsSFxhBMf6gjKd0E6350dgiNsiHarWLfrXWE5X_yfgpyA9WYawm_iT8r2meRMw1BhD9QoVk-kfAdzXbz3nRR2vhCRfaWjqLWShitT9ok84Ekq4e84DRxjxvG9xh86HWF0K_D4O2bXZnoI94hZa0S_BrddujYwwfRzPWOia83ACP5cDe3jpB4DDdHYvbl-SSzYZssw8inZDimzXu9823vSDtZBUzcr_O39A0cGQ","theme":"cfr_theme","theme_token":null},"ajaxTrustedUrl":{"form_action_p_pvdeGsVG5zNF_XLGPTvYSKCf43t8qZYSwcfZl2uzM":true,"\/backgrounder\/marriage-equality-global-comparisons?ajax_form=1":true},"cfr_sailthru":{"customerId":"16a6a423ea139031de8812f22132ba91"},"dataLayer":{"defaultLang":"en","languages":{"en":{"id":"en","name":"English","direction":"ltr","weight":0}}},"lazy":{"lazysizes":{"lazyClass":"lazyload","loadedClass":"lazyloaded","loadingClass":"lazyloading","preloadClass":"lazypreload","errorClass":"lazyerror","autosizesClass":"lazyautosizes","srcAttr":"data-src","srcsetAttr":"data-srcset","sizesAttr":"data-sizes","minSize":40,"customMedia":[],"init":true,"expFactor":1.5,"hFac":0.8,"loadMode":2,"loadHidden":true,"ricTimeout":0,"throttleDelay":125,"plugins":[]},"placeholderSrc":"","preferNative":false,"minified":true,"libraryPath":"\/libraries\/lazysizes"},"search_autocomplete":{"header_search":{"source":"\/callback\/search_autocomplete","selector":".main-header__autocomplete","minChars":3,"maxSuggestions":10,"autoSubmit":true,"autoRedirect":true,"theme":"minimal","filters":["q","keyword"],"noResult":{"group":{"group_id":"no_results"},"label":"Search CFR.org for \u003Cstrong\u003E[search-phrase]\u003C\/strong\u003E.","value":"[search-phrase]","link":""},"moreResults":{"group":{"group_id":"more_results"},"label":"View all results for \u003Cstrong\u003E[search-phrase]\u003C\/strong\u003E.","value":"[search-phrase]","link":""}},"keyword_search":{"source":"\/callback\/search_autocomplete","selector":"#views-exposed-form-site-search-page-1 input.form-text","minChars":3,"maxSuggestions":10,"autoSubmit":true,"autoRedirect":true,"theme":"minimal","filters":["q","keyword"],"noResult":{"group":{"group_id":"no_results"},"label":"Search CFR.org for \u003Cstrong\u003E[search-phrase]\u003C\/strong\u003E.","value":"[search-phrase]","link":""},"moreResults":{"group":{"group_id":"more_results"},"label":"View all results for \u003Cstrong\u003E[search-phrase]\u003C\/strong\u003E.","value":"[search-phrase]","link":""}}},"eu_cookie_compliance":{"cookie_policy_version":"1.0.0","popup_enabled":true,"popup_agreed_enabled":false,"popup_hide_agreed":false,"popup_clicking_confirmation":false,"popup_scrolling_confirmation":false,"popup_html_info":"\u003Cdiv class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-banner eu-cookie-compliance-banner-info eu-cookie-compliance-banner--opt-in\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv class=\u0022popup-content info eu-cookie-compliance-content\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv id=\u0022popup-text\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-message\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cp\u003EThis site uses cookies to improve your user experience. By continuing to browse this site you accept the use of cookies as explained in our \u003Ca href=\u0022\/privacy-policy#cookies\u0022\u003EPrivacy Policy\u003C\/a\u003E.\u003C\/p\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n\n \n \u003Cdiv id=\u0022popup-buttons\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-buttons\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cbutton type=\u0022button\u0022 class=\u0022agree-button eu-cookie-compliance-secondary-button button-container__btn\u0022 onclick=\u0022dataLayer.push({\u0027event\u0027: \u0027gdpr_accept_cfr\u0027});\u0022\u003EAccept\u003C\/button\u003E\n \u003Cbutton type=\u0022button\u0022 class=\u0022decline-button eu-cookie-compliance-default-button button-container__btn\u0022 onclick=\u0022dataLayer.push({\u0027event\u0027: \u0027gdpr_decline_cfr\u0027});\u0022\u003EDecline\u003C\/button\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E","use_mobile_message":false,"mobile_popup_html_info":"\u003Cdiv class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-banner eu-cookie-compliance-banner-info eu-cookie-compliance-banner--opt-in\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv class=\u0022popup-content info eu-cookie-compliance-content\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv id=\u0022popup-text\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-message\u0022\u003E\n \n \u003C\/div\u003E\n\n \n \u003Cdiv id=\u0022popup-buttons\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-buttons\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cbutton type=\u0022button\u0022 class=\u0022agree-button eu-cookie-compliance-secondary-button button-container__btn\u0022 onclick=\u0022dataLayer.push({\u0027event\u0027: \u0027gdpr_accept_cfr\u0027});\u0022\u003EAccept\u003C\/button\u003E\n \u003Cbutton type=\u0022button\u0022 class=\u0022decline-button eu-cookie-compliance-default-button button-container__btn\u0022 onclick=\u0022dataLayer.push({\u0027event\u0027: \u0027gdpr_decline_cfr\u0027});\u0022\u003EDecline\u003C\/button\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E","mobile_breakpoint":768,"popup_html_agreed":false,"popup_use_bare_css":false,"popup_height":"auto","popup_width":"100%","popup_delay":1000,"popup_link":"\/report\/protecting-data-privacy-user-friendly-software","popup_link_new_window":true,"popup_position":false,"fixed_top_position":true,"popup_language":"en","store_consent":false,"better_support_for_screen_readers":false,"cookie_name":"cookie-agreed","reload_page":false,"domain":"","domain_all_sites":false,"popup_eu_only":false,"popup_eu_only_js":true,"cookie_lifetime":100,"cookie_session":0,"set_cookie_session_zero_on_disagree":0,"disagree_do_not_show_popup":false,"method":"opt_in","automatic_cookies_removal":false,"allowed_cookies":"","withdraw_markup":"\u003Cbutton type=\u0022button\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-withdraw-tab\u0022\u003EPrivacy settings\u003C\/button\u003E\n\u003Cdiv aria-labelledby=\u0022popup-text\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-withdraw-banner\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv class=\u0022popup-content info eu-cookie-compliance-content\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cdiv id=\u0022popup-text\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-message\u0022 role=\u0022document\u0022\u003E\n \u003Ch2\u003EWe use cookies on this site to enhance your user experience\u003C\/h2\u003E\u003Cp\u003EYou have given your consent for us to set cookies.\u003C\/p\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n \u003Cdiv id=\u0022popup-buttons\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-compliance-buttons\u0022\u003E\n \u003Cbutton type=\u0022button\u0022 class=\u0022eu-cookie-withdraw-button \u0022\u003EWithdraw consent\u003C\/button\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E","withdraw_enabled":false,"reload_options":null,"reload_routes_list":"","withdraw_button_on_info_popup":false,"cookie_categories":[],"cookie_categories_details":[],"enable_save_preferences_button":false,"cookie_value_disagreed":"0","cookie_value_agreed_show_thank_you":"1","cookie_value_agreed":"2","containing_element":"body","settings_tab_enabled":false,"olivero_primary_button_classes":"","olivero_secondary_button_classes":"","close_button_action":"","open_by_default":true,"modules_allow_popup":true,"hide_the_banner":false,"geoip_match":true},"dd_datalayer_tools":{"data_layers":{"0":{"type":"bypass"},"Head":[{"type":"open_text","id":"246330","value":"\/\/ Content Text Copied\r\nconsole.log(\u0027Content Text Copied: Loaded\u0027);\r\nfunction getSelectionText() {\r\n var text = \u0022\u0022;\r\n if (window.getSelection) {\r\n text = window.getSelection().toString();\r\n } else if (document.selection \u0026\u0026 document.selection.type !== \u0022Control\u0022) {\r\n text = document.selection.createRange().text;\r\n }\r\n return text;\r\n}\r\ndocument.addEventListener(\u0022copy\u0022, function(e){\r\n console.log(\u0027Text Copied\u0027);\r\n dataLayer.push({\r\n \u0022contentTextCopiedMetric\u0022: \u00221\u0022,\r\n \u0022event\u0022: \u0022Content Text Copied\u0022,\r\n \u0022nonInteraction\u0022: \u0022False\u0022,\r\n \u0022target\u0022: getSelectionText()\r\n });\r\n});"},{"type":"open_text","id":"246328","value":"var contentTypeToCheck = [\u0022article\u0022, \u0022blog\u0022, \u0022backgrounder\u0022, \u0022in-brief\u0022];\r\nvar contentType = document.referrer.replace(\/^[^:]+:\\\/\\\/[^\/]+\\\/\/, \u0022\u0022).replace(\/\\\/.*\/, \u0022\u0022);\r\nvar specialCaseBlog = document.referrer.replace(\/^[^:]+:\\\/\\\/[^\/]+\/, \u0022\u0022).replace(\/#.*\/, \u0022\u0022);\r\nif(specialCaseBlog !== \u0022\/blog\u0022) {\r\n if(contentTypeToCheck.includes(contentType)){\r\n dataLayer.push({\r\n \u0022event\u0022: \u0022Recirculation\u0022,\r\n \u0022nonInteraction\u0022: \u0022False\u0022,\r\n \u0022recirculationMetric\u0022: \u00221\u0022,\r\n \u0022source\u0022: document.referrer\r\n });\r\n }\r\n}"},{"type":"open_text","id":"246327","value":"$(document).ajaxComplete(function(event, request, settings) {\r\n var eventLabel = $(document).find(\u0022head title\u0022).text();\r\n var responseUrl = settings.url;\r\n if(responseUrl.indexOf(\u0022view_name=topic_filters_cards\u0026view_display_id=filters_block\u0022) !== -1) {\r\n dataLayer.push({\r\n \u0022event\u0022: \u0022Infinite Scroll Article\u0022,\r\n \u0022infiniteScrollMetric\u0022: \u00221\u0022,\r\n \u0022nonInteraction\u0022: \u0022False\u0022\r\n });\r\n }\r\n});"},{"type":"open_text","id":"246326","value":"var currentUrl = window.location.href;\r\nvar contentRecirculationCount = 1;\r\n$(document).ajaxComplete(function( event, request, settings ) {\r\n var responseText = request.responseText;\r\n if((responseText.indexOf(\u0022cfr-transported-content\u0022) !== -1) \u0026\u0026 (responseText.indexOf(\u0022article--blog-post\u0022) !== -1)) {\r\n var newUrl = window.location.protocol + \u0022\/\/\u0022 + location.host;\r\n var eventLabel = currentUrl + \u0022 to \u0022 + newUrl + \u0022 : \u0022 + contentRecirculationCount + \u0022-\u0022 + (contentRecirculationCount+1);\r\n dataLayer.push({\r\n \u0022event\u0022 : \u0022Infinite Scroll Next Article\u0022,\r\n \u0022infiniteScrollMetric\u0022 : \u00221\u0022,\r\n \u0022nonInteraction\u0022 : \u0022False\u0022\r\n });\r\n\r\n contentRecirculationCount = contentRecirculationCount + 1;\r\n currentUrl = newUrl;\r\n }\r\n});\r\n"},{"type":"open_text","id":"246325","value":"var scroll_name_array=[];\r\n$(window).bind(\u0022scroll\u0022, function() {\r\n if($(window).scrollTop() \u003E= $(\u0022.body-content\u0022).offset().top + $(\u0022.body-content\u0022).outerHeight() - window.innerHeight) {\r\n if(!scroll_name_array.includes(\u0022scroll\u0022)) {\r\n scroll_name_array.push(\u0022scroll\u0022);\r\n dataLayer.push({\r\n \u0022contentBottomReachedMetric\u0022 : \u00221\u0022,\r\n \u0022event\u0022: \u0022Content Bottom Reached\u0022,\r\n \u0022nonInteraction\u0022: \u0022False\u0022,\r\n \u0022source\u0022: \u0022\u0022\r\n });\r\n }\r\n }\r\n});"},{"type":"open_text","id":"231361","value":"function getQueryParams(qs) {\r\n var params = {}, tokens, re = \/[?\u0026]?([^=]+)=([^\u0026]*)\/g;\r\n qs = qs.split(\u0022+\u0022).join(\u0022 \u0022);\r\n while (tokens === re.exec(qs)) {\r\n params[decodeURIComponent(tokens[1])] = decodeURIComponent(tokens[2]);\r\n }\r\n return params;\r\n}\r\nvar query_params = getQueryParams(document.location.search);\r\ndataLayer.push(query_params);"},{"type":"open_text","id":"228562","value":"dataLayer.push({\u0022pubType\u0022: \u0022article\u0022});"},{"type":"open_text","id":"228497","value":"if(($(\u0022article.main-wrapper p\u0022).length) \u003E 0) {\r\n var wordCountTemp = $(\u0022article.main-wrapper p\u0022).text();\r\n wordCountTemp = wordCountTemp.replace(\/(^\\s*)|(\\s*$)\/gi,\u0022\u0022);\r\n wordCountTemp = wordCountTemp.replace(\/[ ]{2,}\/gi,\u0022 \u0022);\r\n wordCountTemp = wordCountTemp.replace(\/\\n \/,\u0022\\n\u0022);\r\n var wordCount = wordCountTemp.split(\u0022 \u0022).length;\r\n dataLayer.push({\u0022contentWordCount\u0022: wordCount});\r\n}\r\n\r\nif(($(\u0022article.article--immersive p\u0022).length) \u003E 0) {\r\n var wordCountTemp = $(\u0022article.article--immersive p\u0022).text();\r\n wordCountTemp = wordCountTemp.replace(\/(^\\s*)|(\\s*$)\/gi,\u0022\u0022);\r\n wordCountTemp = wordCountTemp.replace(\/[ ]{2,}\/gi,\u0022 \u0022);\r\n wordCountTemp = wordCountTemp.replace(\/\\n \/,\u0022\\n\u0022);\r\n var wordCount = wordCountTemp.split(\u0022 \u0022).length;\r\n dataLayer.push({\u0022contentWordCount\u0022: wordCount});\r\n}"},{"type":"open_text","id":"228501","value":"if(($(\u0022div.layout-content\u0022).length) \u003E 0) {\r\n var editorialContentAssetType = \u0022none\u0022;\r\n var nodeNames = [];\r\n var contentNames = [{\r\n \u0022img\u0022: \u0022image\u0022,\r\n \u0022audio\u0022: \u0022audio\u0022,\r\n \u0022div\u0022: \u0022video\u0022\r\n }];\r\n $(\u0022img, audio, .video-player\u0022).each(function(index) {\r\n var $el = $(this);\r\n var labelKey = $el.prop(\u0022tagName\u0022).toLowerCase();\r\n nodeNames[$el.prop(\u0022tagName\u0022)] = contentNames[0][labelKey];\r\n });\r\n if(!$.isEmptyObject(nodeNames)) {\r\n var nodeItems = [];\r\n for (var key in nodeNames) {\r\n nodeItems.push(nodeNames[key]);\r\n }\r\n editorialContentAssetType = nodeItems.join(\u0022-\u0022);\r\n }\r\n dataLayer.push({\u0022editorialContentAssetType\u0022: editorialContentAssetType});\r\n}"},{"type":"open_text","id":"228503","value":"dataLayer.push({\u0022contentGroup2\u0022: \u0022Editorial Text\u0022});"},{"event":"Social Share Click","":null,"custom_values":[],"label":"Social Share Click","type":"Dynamic","id":"246351","domSpecificClassId":".share-kit__icons button.share-kit__hotspot","domSelectElement":"","nonInteraction":"False","triggerElementType":"ajax","eventHandlerType":"click","elementWithClassID":".share-kit__icons button.share-kit__hotspot"},{"event":"Order Print Copy Click","":null,"custom_values":[],"label":"Order Print Copy Click","type":"Dynamic","id":"246350","domSpecificClassId":".article-header__section-bottom a.button-container__btn:contains(Order Print Copy)","domSelectElement":"section","nonInteraction":"False","triggerElementType":"ajax","eventHandlerType":"click","elementWithClassID":"section.article-header__section-bottom a.button-container__btn:contains(Order Print Copy)"},{"event":"Order Paperback Click","":null,"custom_values":[],"label":"Order Paperback Click","type":"Dynamic","id":"246349","domSpecificClassId":".article-header__section-bottom a.button-container__btn:contains(Order Paperback)","domSelectElement":"section","nonInteraction":"False","triggerElementType":"ajax","eventHandlerType":"click","elementWithClassID":"section.article-header__section-bottom a.button-container__btn:contains(Order Paperback)"},{"event":"order e-book click","":null,"custom_values":[],"label":"order e-book click","type":"Dynamic","id":"246348","domSpecificClassId":".article-header__section-bottom button.button-container__btn:contains(Order E-Book)","domSelectElement":"section","nonInteraction":"False","triggerElementType":"ajax","eventHandlerType":"click","elementWithClassID":"section.article-header__section-bottom button.button-container__btn:contains(Order E-Book)"},{"event":"Footer Logo Click","":null,"custom_values":[],"label":"Footer Logo Click","type":"Dynamic","id":"246322","domSpecificClassId":" a.main-footer__logo-btn","domSelectElement":"footer","nonInteraction":"False","triggerElementType":"ajax","eventHandlerType":"click","elementWithClassID":"footer a.main-footer__logo-btn"}],"1":{"type":"bypass"}},"custom_variables":[],"cfr_custom_variables":[{"contentType":"Backgrounder Redesign"},{"postDate":"2013-07-31T16:09:03"},{"author":"CFR.org Editors"}]},"customDimensionUserCategory":[{"role":["anonymous"]},{"role":["anonymous"]}],"postDateRevision":[{"changedTime":"2022-12-22"}],"createdTime":[{"createdTime":"2013-07-31"}],"cfrNewsletter":{"recaptcha":{"siteKey":"6LdVm2YUAAAAALLTS2XVQD5O47VtNJIKQTsrqP9t"}},"ajax":{"cfr-newsletter-signup-form--the-world-this-week-embedded-form--submit":{"wrapper":"the-world-this-week-embedded-form","callback":[{},"ajaxSubmit"],"event":"click","prevent":"mousedown","url":"\/backgrounder\/marriage-equality-global-comparisons?ajax_form=1","httpMethod":"POST","dialogType":"ajax","submit":{"_triggering_element_name":"op","_triggering_element_value":"Subscribe"}}},"sitewideAlert":{"refreshInterval":15000,"automaticRefresh":false},"user":{"uid":0,"permissionsHash":"e331052eb0a1bc4b2feb3d0cfc1f0f2f6ec5dfd9a50125d1397e4ccee31da7be"}}</script>
<script src="/sites/default/files/js/js_XIMlUC5DxSL957ExeQbfOmMl67HrazEjW48P7tVUEUM.js?scope=header&delta=0&language=en&theme=cfr_theme&include=eJyNU9tynDAM_SFYf0QynfS1l2ePsLXgxLaIJJOhX1_BtpQ0O52-MOgc3Y8crux1woJuzDRA7oE1hYxdMOIGuQJ8Rcw7NFHBGUb0gkETVXEQF6gBo4emFKjMGfUWLpCyTtzcMywggdOsHubkcxoYeO0iKGRYkd2EeUY-AQNOsCRi6TL8WN326QSBw_SujNtbv5RUU4F8CSJdIEYXuc1mv-tIVlEsbgDBDpsPRC8J_U6nbQB3D_QRr9CydjH6ozuvRFncYX-2vHLPIzRRKo-pYBXb1XdBfgDFkbbhP7rPFAOIfrJpZPqHw1c1ke7zoo9W4AsuaSt4z2dJEckyaPuflh-oKlZ9Qog5VbwbwWgl4zcL2VU3SfyEph6K_r2jcFzbMPYm2Yi9vCUN04kJwLEfmdrcWeWkq8cyYDR83g7uJnCytriaxM-vDXm9XIlLt3mECW4SM_42j78TNhKNGS8H4LGeWphbzq-NFE_Yr3fRS06lr7CcKHsmIttBn8aD8LLNUKOd9YckZySjafnHts1tIZIU30wpv_M2btKfkbJwZA"></script>
<script src="https://ak.sail-horizon.com/spm/spm.v1.min.js"></script>
<script src="/sites/default/files/js/js_bkuE6ZcVhImEOv9sRH5dD7sYTUv7uZtHFHDcqEA9N08.js?scope=header&delta=2&language=en&theme=cfr_theme&include=eJyNU9tynDAM_SFYf0QynfS1l2ePsLXgxLaIJJOhX1_BtpQ0O52-MOgc3Y8crux1woJuzDRA7oE1hYxdMOIGuQJ8Rcw7NFHBGUb0gkETVXEQF6gBo4emFKjMGfUWLpCyTtzcMywggdOsHubkcxoYeO0iKGRYkd2EeUY-AQNOsCRi6TL8WN326QSBw_SujNtbv5RUU4F8CSJdIEYXuc1mv-tIVlEsbgDBDpsPRC8J_U6nbQB3D_QRr9CydjH6ozuvRFncYX-2vHLPIzRRKo-pYBXb1XdBfgDFkbbhP7rPFAOIfrJpZPqHw1c1ke7zoo9W4AsuaSt4z2dJEckyaPuflh-oKlZ9Qog5VbwbwWgl4zcL2VU3SfyEph6K_r2jcFzbMPYm2Yi9vCUN04kJwLEfmdrcWeWkq8cyYDR83g7uJnCytriaxM-vDXm9XIlLt3mECW4SM_42j78TNhKNGS8H4LGeWphbzq-NFE_Yr3fRS06lr7CcKHsmIttBn8aD8LLNUKOd9YckZySjafnHts1tIZIU30wpv_M2btKfkbJwZA"></script>
<script src="https://www.google.com/recaptcha/api.js?render=explicit" async defer></script>
<script src="/sites/default/files/js/js_uk-5W4zAfhQ3FmPSivCT6EkSWlziJZObe2mecXVbs9A.js?scope=header&delta=4&language=en&theme=cfr_theme&include=eJyNU9tynDAM_SFYf0QynfS1l2ePsLXgxLaIJJOhX1_BtpQ0O52-MOgc3Y8crux1woJuzDRA7oE1hYxdMOIGuQJ8Rcw7NFHBGUb0gkETVXEQF6gBo4emFKjMGfUWLpCyTtzcMywggdOsHubkcxoYeO0iKGRYkd2EeUY-AQNOsCRi6TL8WN326QSBw_SujNtbv5RUU4F8CSJdIEYXuc1mv-tIVlEsbgDBDpsPRC8J_U6nbQB3D_QRr9CydjH6ozuvRFncYX-2vHLPIzRRKo-pYBXb1XdBfgDFkbbhP7rPFAOIfrJpZPqHw1c1ke7zoo9W4AsuaSt4z2dJEckyaPuflh-oKlZ9Qog5VbwbwWgl4zcL2VU3SfyEph6K_r2jcFzbMPYm2Yi9vCUN04kJwLEfmdrcWeWkq8cyYDR83g7uJnCytriaxM-vDXm9XIlLt3mECW4SM_42j78TNhKNGS8H4LGeWphbzq-NFE_Yr3fRS06lr7CcKHsmIttBn8aD8LLNUKOd9YckZySjafnHts1tIZIU30wpv_M2btKfkbJwZA"></script>
<script src="/modules/custom/cfr_sailthru/js/sailthru_init.js?suxbu7" async defer></script>
<script src="/sites/default/files/js/js_n5hZGATm86yldfx1LeNBZ5GkULqb6X6CIYTBQXhc6OA.js?scope=header&delta=6&language=en&theme=cfr_theme&include=eJyNU9tynDAM_SFYf0QynfS1l2ePsLXgxLaIJJOhX1_BtpQ0O52-MOgc3Y8crux1woJuzDRA7oE1hYxdMOIGuQJ8Rcw7NFHBGUb0gkETVXEQF6gBo4emFKjMGfUWLpCyTtzcMywggdOsHubkcxoYeO0iKGRYkd2EeUY-AQNOsCRi6TL8WN326QSBw_SujNtbv5RUU4F8CSJdIEYXuc1mv-tIVlEsbgDBDpsPRC8J_U6nbQB3D_QRr9CydjH6ozuvRFncYX-2vHLPIzRRKo-pYBXb1XdBfgDFkbbhP7rPFAOIfrJpZPqHw1c1ke7zoo9W4AsuaSt4z2dJEckyaPuflh-oKlZ9Qog5VbwbwWgl4zcL2VU3SfyEph6K_r2jcFzbMPYm2Yi9vCUN04kJwLEfmdrcWeWkq8cyYDR83g7uJnCytriaxM-vDXm9XIlLt3mECW4SM_42j78TNhKNGS8H4LGeWphbzq-NFE_Yr3fRS06lr7CcKHsmIttBn8aD8LLNUKOd9YckZySjafnHts1tIZIU30wpv_M2btKfkbJwZA"></script>
<script src="https://www.google.com/recaptcha/api.js?hl=en&render=explicit&onload=drupalRecaptchaOnload" async defer></script>
</head>
<body class="node-article page--type--article published">
<div class="body-clip-overflow">
<a href="#main-content" class="visually-hidden focusable">
Skip to main content
</a>
<noscript><iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-KFS3NQ" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript><div data-sitewide-alert></div>
<div class="dialog-off-canvas-main-canvas" data-off-canvas-main-canvas>
<div class="layout-container">
<header role="banner">
<div>
<div id="block-topicnavigationblock">
<header class="main-header main-header--without-msp">
<div class="main-header__container">
<div class="main-header__search">
<div class="main-header__search-container">
<form action="/search" autocomplete="off" class="main-header__search-form">
<input type="search" name="keyword" placeholder="What are you searching for?" class="main-header__search-input main-header__autocomplete" />
<button type="button" class="main-header__search-cancel">
Cancel
</button>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div class="main-header__belt">
<div class="main-header__belt-container">
<div class="main-header__branding">
<a href="/" class="main-header__branding-link">
<svg viewBox="0 0 125 60" class="main-header__branding-icon icon-logo-signature" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
<title>Council on Foreign Relations</title>
<path d="M106.909 13.178c-.502.92-1.081 1.458-1.854 1.458-.713 0-1.01-.522-.975-1.458.062-1.772 1.163-4.833 2.824-4.833.6 0 .999.416.97 1.371-.026.912-.386 2.406-.965 3.462m-.055-5.377c-2.64 0-4.56 2.264-4.63 4.755-.04 1.428.743 2.647 2.703 2.647 3.06 0 4.676-2.7 4.73-4.714.053-1.57-.944-2.688-2.803-2.688m17.484 3.789c0-.612-.316-1.01-.782-1.01-.404 0-.679.3-.679.677 0 .[scrubbed] 1.239-.001.259-.103.519-.32.765-.31.297-.748.513-2.042.513h-3.142c-.364 0-.465-.154-.313-.587.468-1.341 1.109-2.92 1.241-3.587.176-.876-.203-1.687-1.315-1.687-1.749 0-2.89 1.524-4.426 4.42h-.089s1.115-2.606 1.115-3.464c0-.61-.367-.946-1.026-.946-1.009 0-2.041 1.05-2.486 1.63l.31.302c.203-.255.51-.557.737-.733.402-.312.808-.263.687.407-.155.866-1.328 3.959-1.961 5.535h1.827c1.875-3.756 3.251-6.174 4.345-6.174.317 0 .[scrubbed] 0 .675-.985 2.959-1.389 4.312-.238.8-.183 1.332.52 1.332h3.498c1.451 0 2.618-.677 3.122-1.04 1.003-.68 1.635-1.614 1.635-2.433M10.751 24.923v-2.138H2.058v14.48h2.448V30.94h5.657v-2.143H4.506v-3.874zm71.256-.185c-1.474-1.462-3.291-2.302-5.748-2.302-4.258 0-7.677 3.079-7.676 7.66-.001 4.576 3.074 7.48 7.453 7.48h.014c4.075 0 7.1-2.548 7.115-6.755v-.448h-7.093v2.06h4.397c-.473 2.002-2.291 2.938-4.271 2.938-3.055 0-5.025-2.035-5.028-5.347.008-3.065 2.025-5.4 4.976-5.405 2.104 0 3.426.977 4.223 1.776l1.638-1.657zM4.49 51.483v-4.486h2.005c2.614 0 2.919 1.203 2.919 2.105 0 .888-.377 2.381-2.901 2.381H4.49zm3.519 1.851s-.018-.018.112-.034c2.109-.247 3.73-1.928 3.73-4.252 0-2.538-1.893-4.18-4.818-4.18H2.058v14.535H4.49v-6.019h.592l4.895 6.02h3.09l-5.06-6.07zm9.314-8.445v14.533h9.205v-2.114h-6.68v-4.337h5.546v-2.108h-5.546v-3.866h6.21v-2.108zm13.937-.022v14.535h8.865v-2.094h-6.343v-12.44zm24.952 0v2.13h4.494v12.407h2.438V46.995h4.49v-2.13zM71.44 59.402h2.529V44.866H71.44zm35.288-5.305l-9.756-9.776v15.082h2.43v-9.167c.423.418 9.757 9.764 9.757 9.764V44.867h-2.431v9.23zm11.854-3.111c-1.794-.892-2.6-1.555-2.6-2.6 0-1.58 1.623-1.775 2.107-1.775 1.029 0 1.988.344 2.834 1.133l1.234-1.761c-1.366-1.073-2.622-1.393-4.068-1.393-2.648 0-4.5 1.61-4.5 3.924 0 2.215 1.455 3.317 3.917 4.575 1.699.867 2.557 1.632 2.557 2.654 0 1.142-.993 1.819-2.301 1.819-1.38 0-2.47-.465-3.567-1.488l-1.375 1.721c1.582 1.46 3.24 1.87 4.763 1.87 3.286 0 4.942-1.864 4.942-4.14 0-2.331-1.765-3.454-3.943-4.54M12.08 11.201c-1.172 1.342-2.672 2.016-4.33 2.016-2.959 0-5.17-2.004-5.17-5.403 0-3.105 2.076-5.258 4.862-5.258 1.55 0 2.882.51 4.066 1.695l1.618-1.64C11.686 1.083 9.828.363 7.47.363 3.244.363 0 3.586 0 7.884c0 4.511 3.088 7.523 7.433 7.523 2.561 0 4.584-.862 6.046-2.523l-1.399-1.683zm66.172.03c-1.172 1.341-2.547 1.975-4.422 1.975-3.084 0-5.17-2.004-5.17-5.402 0-3.104 2.084-5.267 4.87-5.267 1.55 0 2.883.51 4.066 1.695l1.6-1.619c-1.39-1.536-3.287-2.25-5.645-2.25-4.343 0-7.472 3.223-7.472 7.521 0 4.511 3 7.523 7.435 7.523 2.677 0 4.676-.822 6.137-2.483l-1.4-1.693zm-38.644 4.05c3.432 0 5.411-1.862 5.973-4.36.11-.496.165-1.217.165-1.834V.548H43.31v8.468c0 2.721-1.342 4.075-3.68 4.075-2.41 0-3.854-1.398-3.854-4.075V.548H33.34v8.54c0 .642.057 1.338.17 1.833.573 2.498 2.598 4.36 6.1 4.36m13.05-9.512c.425.419 9.83 9.91 9.83 9.91V.548h-2.372v9.365L50.294 0v15.082h2.366V5.769zm30.062 9.313h2.525V.548h-2.525zM90.25.548V15.08h8.942v-2.095h-6.41V.548zM22.66 2.403c-2.794 0-5.06 2.216-5.06 5.466s2.154 5.467 5.06 5.467c2.904 0 5.056-2.217 5.056-5.467 0-3.25-2.264-5.466-5.057-5.466m-7.613 5.464C15.042 3.503 18.316.25 22.66.25c4.344 0 7.614 3.254 7.613 7.618.001 4.362-3.136 7.617-7.613 7.617-4.478 0-7.617-3.255-7.613-7.617m5.94 16.692c-2.793 0-5.057 2.216-5.057 5.467 0 3.25 2.152 5.467 5.057 5.467 2.906 0 5.057-2.217 5.057-5.467 0-3.251-2.263-5.467-5.057-5.467m-7.613 5.465c-.005-4.365 3.269-7.62 7.613-7.62 4.345 0 7.616 3.255 7.614 7.62.002 4.363-3.137 7.617-7.614 7.617s-7.618-3.254-7.613-7.617m36.748.788h5.546v-2.108h-5.546v-3.866h6.208v-2.108h-8.734v14.534h9.205v-2.114h-6.679zm11.533 6.452h2.525V22.73h-2.525zm-26.489-7.92v-4.487h2.004c2.613 0 2.919 1.203 2.919 2.107 0 .887-.378 2.38-2.901 2.38h-2.022zm3.519 1.85s-.019-.017.111-.033c2.108-.247 3.73-1.928 3.73-4.252 0-2.538-1.894-4.182-4.818-4.182h-4.975v14.537h2.433v-6.018h.592l4.895 6.018h3.09l-5.058-6.07zm3.449 28.204h2.541l1.416-3.376h5.558l1.393 3.376h2.682l-6.774-15.49-6.816 15.49zm6.732-10.073l1.89 4.542h-3.789l1.9-4.542zm36.612-2.6c-2.792 0-5.056 2.216-5.056 5.466 0 3.251 2.153 5.468 5.056 5.468 2.907 0 5.06-2.217 5.06-5.468 0-3.25-2.264-5.466-5.06-5.466m-7.613 5.464c-.004-4.365 3.27-7.617 7.614-7.617 4.344 0 7.617 3.252 7.614 7.617.002 4.362-3.138 7.618-7.615 7.618s-7.617-3.256-7.613-7.618m11.558-24.238c.424.419 9.829 9.909 9.829 9.909V22.73h-2.37v9.366l-9.823-9.913v15.082h2.364v-9.313z" class="icon-fill" fill="none"/>
</svg>
</a>
</div>
<div class="main-header__corporate">
<ul class="main-header__corporate-list">
<li class="main-header__corporate-list-item">
<a href="https://foreignaffairs.com" target="_blank" class="main-header__corporate-link main-header__corporate-link--fa" rel="noopener">
Foreign Affairs
</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__corporate-list-item">
<a href="https://education.cfr.org/" target="_blank" class="main-header__corporate-link" rel="noopener">
CFR Education
</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__corporate-list-item">
<a href="https://link.cfr.org/join/66n/signup&hash=2d4c5929e9e04cc42f5cd375fb8dcfb1" target="_blank" class="main-header__corporate-link main-header__corporate-link-- js-sailthru-newsletter" rel="noopener">
Newsletters
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="main-header__controls">
<ul class="main-header__controls-list">
<li class="main-header__controls-list-item main-header__controls-list-item--initiatives">
<div class="main-header__initiatives-dropdown">
<button class="main-header__initiatives-dropdown-toggle">
<svg viewBox="0 0 20 20" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="main-header__initiatives-grid-icon icon-grid">
<rect x="1" y="1" width="4" height="4" rx="2" fill="none" class="icon-fill"/>
<rect x="1" y="8" width="4" height="4" rx="2" fill="none" class="icon-fill"/>
<rect x="1" y="15" width="4" height="4" rx="2" fill="none" class="icon-fill"/>
<rect x="8" y="1" width="4" height="4" rx="2" fill="none" class="icon-fill"/>
<rect x="8" y="8" width="4" height="4" rx="2" fill="none" class="icon-fill"/>
<rect x="8" y="15" width="4" height="4" rx="2" fill="none" class="icon-fill"/>
<rect x="15" y="1" width="4" height="4" rx="2" fill="none" class="icon-fill"/>
<rect x="15" y="8" width="4" height="4" rx="2" fill="none" class="icon-fill"/>
<rect x="15" y="15" width="4" height="4" rx="2" fill="none" class="icon-fill"/>
</svg>
</button>
<div class="main-header__initiatives-dropdown-menu">
<div class="main-header__initiatives-dropdown-menu-container">
<div class="main-header__initiatives-dropdown-title">Related Sites</div>
<ul class="main-header__initiatives-dropdown-list">
<li class="main-header__initiatives-dropdown-list-item">
<a href="https://www.cfr.org/councilofcouncils" target="_blank" class="main-header__initiatives-dropdown-link">
<img data-src="/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-coc-icon.png" loading="lazy" alt="Council of Councils" class="lazyload main-header__initiatives-dropdown-icon" />
Council of Councils
</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__initiatives-dropdown-list-item">
<a href="https://www.thinkglobalhealth.org" target="_blank" class="main-header__initiatives-dropdown-link">
<img data-src="/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-tgh-icon.png" loading="lazy" alt="Think Global Health" class="lazyload main-header__initiatives-dropdown-icon" />
Think Global Health
</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__initiatives-dropdown-list-item">
<a href="https://cfrorg.store" target="_blank" class="main-header__initiatives-dropdown-link">
<img data-src="/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-store.png" loading="lazy" alt="Online Store" class="lazyload main-header__initiatives-dropdown-icon" />
Online Store
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li class="main-header__controls-list-item main-header__controls-list-item--user">
<a href="/member/login" class="main-header__controls-link">
<svg viewBox="0 0 22 22" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="main-header__controls-icon-user icon-user-circle-outlined" fill="none">
<path class="icon-stroke" stroke="none" stroke-width="1.85" d="M11 21c5.523 0 10-4.477 10-10S16.523 1 11 1 1 5.477 1 11s4.477 10 10 10z"/>
<path class="icon-stroke" stroke="none" stroke-width="1.85" d="M11 12.25a3.25 3.25 0 100-6.5 3.25 3.25 0 000 6.5zM5.468 19.153v-1.6A2.553 2.553 0 018.021 15h5.958a2.553 2.553 0 012.553 2.553v1.702"/>
</svg>
</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__controls-list-item main-header__controls-list-item--search-cta">
<button type="submit" class="main-header__search-cta">
<svg viewBox="0 0 24 24" class="main-header__search-icon icon-search" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
<title>Search</title>
<g class="icon-fill" fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd">
<path d="M10 18a8 8 0 1 0 0-16 8 8 0 0 0 0 16zm0-2a6 6 0 1 1 0-12 6 6 0 0 1 0 12z"/>
<path d="M14.293 15.707l7 7 1.414-1.414-7-7z"/>
</g>
</svg>
</button>
</li>
<li class="main-header__controls-list-item main-header__controls-list-item--menu">
<div class="main-header__menu-hotspot">
<div class="main-header__menu-btn">
<span class="main-header__menu-btn-bar"></span>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li class="main-header__controls-list-item main-header__controls-list-item--search">
<div class="main-header__search-inline">
<form action="/search" autocomplete="off" class="main-header__search-inline-form">
<input type="search" name="keyword" placeholder="What are you searching for?" class="main-header__search-inline-input main-header__autocomplete" />
<button type="submit" class="main-header__search-inline-cta">
<svg viewBox="0 0 24 24" class="main-header__search-inline-icon icon-search" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
<title>Search</title>
<g class="icon-fill" fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd">
<path d="M10 18a8 8 0 1 0 0-16 8 8 0 0 0 0 16zm0-2a6 6 0 1 1 0-12 6 6 0 0 1 0 12z"/>
<path d="M14.293 15.707l7 7 1.414-1.414-7-7z"/>
</g>
</svg>
</button>
</form>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="main-header__nav">
<div class="main-header__nav-container">
<ul class="main-header__nav-list main-header__nav--with-featured">
<li class="main-header__nav-list-item main-header__nav-list-item--featured">
<a href="https://www.cfr.org/experts" class="main-header__nav-list-item-link">Experts</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__nav-list-item main-header__nav-list-item--featured">
<a href="https://www.cfr.org/initiative/ukraine" class="main-header__nav-list-item-link">Securing Ukraine</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__nav-list-item main-header__nav-list-item--with-dropdown">
<a href="/topics" class="main-header__nav-list-item-link">Topics</a>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown">
<button class="main-header__nav-dropdown-toggle"></button>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-container">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-featured">
<div class="main-header__featured">
<div class="main-header__featured-title">Featured</div>
<div class="main-header__featured-content">
<section class="card-article article card-article--with-thumbnail">
<div class="card-article__container">
<p class="card-article__topic-tag">
<a href="/energy-and-environment/climate-change" class="card-article__topic-tag-link">
Climate Change
</a>
</p>
<div class="card-article__link-outer-wrapper">
<a href="/backgrounder/paris-global-climate-change-agreements " class="card-article__link">
<div class="card-article__info">
<p class="card-article__title clamp-js" data-clamp-lines="4">Global Climate Agreements: Successes and Failures</p>
<div class="card-article__image">
<div class="card-article__image-cover bg-image-switch" data-bg-image=//cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_landscape_m_380x253/public/image/2020/10/climate.jpg.webp></div>
</div>
<div class="card-article__caption">
<div class="card-article__caption_wrapper">
<span class="card-article__caption_credit"></span>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</a>
</div>
<div class="card-description card-article__dek clamp-js" data-clamp-lines="4">Introduction
Over the last several decades, governments have collectively pledged to slow global warming. But despite intensified diplomacy, the world is already facing the consequences of climate…</div>
<p class="card-article__metadata">
<span class="card-article__authors">
by Lindsay Maizland and <a href="/bio/clara-fong" class="card-article__authors-link">Clara Fong</a></span>
<span class="card-article__date"> January 21, 2025</span>
<a href="/programs/renewing-america" class="card-article__series">
Renewing America
</a>
</p>
</div>
</section>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-list">
<ul class="main-header__secondary-nav-list">
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/defense-and-security" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Defense & Security</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/diplomacy-and-international-institutions" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Diplomacy & International Institutions</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/economics" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Economics</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/energy-and-environment" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Energy & Environment</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/health" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Health</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/human-rights" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Human Rights</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/politics-and-government" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Politics & Government</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/social-issues" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Social Issues</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li class="main-header__nav-list-item main-header__nav-list-item--with-dropdown">
<a href="/regions" class="main-header__nav-list-item-link">Regions</a>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown">
<button class="main-header__nav-dropdown-toggle"></button>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-container">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-featured">
<div class="main-header__featured">
<div class="main-header__featured-title">Featured</div>
<div class="main-header__featured-content">
<section class="card-article article card-article--with-thumbnail">
<div class="card-article__container">
<p class="card-article__topic-tag">
<a href="/asia/myanmar" class="card-article__topic-tag-link">
Myanmar
</a>
</p>
<div class="card-article__link-outer-wrapper">
<a href="/backgrounder/myanmar-history-coup-military-rule-ethnic-conflict-rohingya " class="card-article__link">
<div class="card-article__info">
<p class="card-article__title clamp-js" data-clamp-lines="4">Myanmar’s Troubled History</p>
<div class="card-article__image">
<div class="card-article__image-cover bg-image-switch" data-bg-image=//cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_landscape_m_380x253/public/image/2021/02/myanmarbgr.jpg.webp></div>
</div>
<div class="card-article__caption">
<div class="card-article__caption_wrapper">
<span class="card-article__caption_credit"></span>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</a>
</div>
<div class="card-description card-article__dek clamp-js" data-clamp-lines="4">Introduction
Throughout its decades of independence, Myanmar has struggled with military rule, civil war, poor governance, and widespread poverty. A military coup in February 2021 dashed hopes for…</div>
<p class="card-article__metadata">
<span class="card-article__authors">
by Lindsay Maizland</span>
<span class="card-article__date"> January 31, 2022</span>
</p>
</div>
</section>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-list">
<ul class="main-header__secondary-nav-list">
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/americas" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Americas</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/asia" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Asia</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/europe-and-eurasia" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Europe & Eurasia</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/global-commons" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Global Commons</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/middle-east-and-north-africa" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Middle East & North Africa</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/oceania" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Oceania</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/sub-saharan-africa" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li class="main-header__nav-list-item main-header__nav-list-item--with-dropdown">
<a href="/explainers" class="main-header__nav-list-item-link">Explainers</a>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown">
<button class="main-header__nav-dropdown-toggle"></button>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-container">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-featured">
<div class="main-header__featured">
<div class="main-header__featured-title">Featured</div>
<div class="main-header__featured-content">
<section class="card-article article card-article--with-thumbnail">
<div class="card-article__container">
<p class="card-article__topic-tag">
<a href="/health" class="card-article__topic-tag-link">
Health
</a>
</p>
<div class="card-article__link-outer-wrapper">
<a href="/article/how-new-tobacco-control-laws-could-help-close-racial-gap-us-cancer " class="card-article__link">
<div class="card-article__info">
<p class="card-article__title clamp-js" data-clamp-lines="4">How Tobacco Laws Could Help Close the Racial Gap on Cancer</p>
<div class="card-article__image">
<div class="card-article__image-cover bg-image-switch" data-bg-image=//cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_landscape_m_380x253/public/image/2023/01/GettyImages-1409152899_Resized_0.jpg.webp></div>
</div>
<div class="card-article__caption">
<div class="card-article__caption_wrapper">
<span class="card-article__caption_credit"></span>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</a>
</div>
<div class="card-description card-article__dek clamp-js" data-clamp-lines="4">During the 2020 presidential campaign, Joe Biden promised that his administration would make a “historic effort” to reduce long-running racial inequities in health. Tobacco use—the leading cause of p…</div>
<p class="card-article__metadata">
<span class="card-article__authors">
by Olivia Angelino, <a href="/expert/thomas-j-bollyky" class="card-article__authors-link">Thomas J. Bollyky</a>, Elle Ruggiero and Isabella Turilli</span>
<span class="card-article__date"> February 1, 2023</span>
<a href="/programs/global-health-program" class="card-article__series">
Global Health Program
</a>
</p>
</div>
</section>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-list">
<ul class="main-header__secondary-nav-list">
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/backgrounders" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Backgrounders</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/inbriefs" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">In Briefs</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/podcasts" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Podcasts</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/videos" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Videos</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/timelines" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Timelines</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/special-projects" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Special Projects</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/infoguides" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">InfoGuides</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li class="main-header__nav-list-item main-header__nav-list-item--with-dropdown">
<a href="/research-analysis" class="main-header__nav-list-item-link">Research & Analysis</a>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown">
<button class="main-header__nav-dropdown-toggle"></button>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-container">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-featured">
<div class="main-header__featured">
<div class="main-header__featured-title">Featured</div>
<div class="main-header__featured-content">
<section class="card-article report card-article--with-thumbnail">
<div class="card-article__container">
<p class="card-article__topic-tag">
<a href="/economics" class="card-article__topic-tag-link">
Economics
</a>
</p>
<div class="card-article__link-outer-wrapper">
<a href="/report/american-views-economic-leadership " class="card-article__link">
<div class="card-article__info">
<p class="card-article__title clamp-js" data-clamp-lines="4">American Views on Economic Leadership</p>
<div class="card-article__image">
<div class="card-article__image-cover bg-image-switch" data-bg-image=//cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_landscape_m_380x253/public/image/2025/03/Cover_web_1.jpg.webp></div>
</div>
<div class="card-article__caption">
<div class="card-article__caption_wrapper">
<span class="card-article__caption_credit"></span>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</a>
</div>
<div class="card-description card-article__dek clamp-js" data-clamp-lines="4">Executive Summary
In the decades following World War II, the United States was the undisputed leader of the global economic system. It had the strongest economy in the world and championed a set o…</div>
<p class="card-article__metadata">
<span class="card-article__publication-type">Report</span>
<span class="card-article__authors">
by <a href="/expert/matthew-p-goodman" class="card-article__authors-link">Matthew P. Goodman</a> and <a href="/bio/allison-j-smith" class="card-article__authors-link">Allison J. Smith</a></span>
<span class="card-article__date"> March 25, 2025</span>
<a href="/programs/realecon" class="card-article__series">
RealEcon
</a>
</p>
</div>
</section>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-list">
<ul class="main-header__secondary-nav-list">
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/experts" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Experts</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/programs" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Centers & Programs</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/publications" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Books & Reports</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/blog" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Blogs</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/task-force-program" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Task Force Program</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/fellowships" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Fellowships</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li class="main-header__nav-list-item main-header__nav-list-item--with-dropdown">
<a href="/outreach" class="main-header__nav-list-item-link">Communities</a>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown">
<button class="main-header__nav-dropdown-toggle"></button>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-container">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-featured">
<div class="main-header__featured">
<div class="main-header__featured-title">Featured</div>
<div class="main-header__featured-content">
<section class="card-article event card-article--with-thumbnail">
<div class="card-article__container">
<p class="card-article__topic-tag">
<a href="/oil-and-petroleum-products" class="card-article__topic-tag-link">
Oil and Petroleum Products
</a>
</p>
<div class="card-article__link-outer-wrapper">
<a href="/event/academic-webinar-geopolitics-oil " class="card-article__link">
<div class="card-article__info">
<p class="card-article__title clamp-js" data-clamp-lines="4">Academic Webinar: The Geopolitics of Oil</p>
<div class="card-article__image">
<span class="card-article__icon"> <svg viewBox="0 0 15 15" class="icon icon-play" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
<title>Play</title>
<path d="M0 15V0l15 7.5z" class="icon-fill" fill="none"/>
</svg>
</span>
<div class="card-article__image-cover bg-image-switch" data-bg-image=//cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_landscape_xl/public/image/2023/04/cms%20Saudi%20Arabia%20oil%20refinery%20by%20Ahmed%20Jadallah%20Reuters.jpg.webp></div>
</div>
<div class="card-article__caption">
<div class="card-article__caption_wrapper">
<span class="card-article__caption_credit"></span>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</a>
</div>
<p class="card-article__metadata">
<span class="card-article__publication-type">Webinar</span>
<span class="card-article__authors">
with Carolyn Kissane and <a href="https://www.cfr.org/bio/irina-faskianos" class="card-article__authors-link">Irina A. Faskianos</a></span>
<span class="card-article__date"> April 12, 2023</span>
</p>
</div>
</section>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-list">
<ul class="main-header__secondary-nav-list">
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/membership" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Members</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/media" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Media</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/congressional-program" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Congress</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/academic/cfr-academic" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Students and Educators</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/state-and-local" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">State & Local Officials</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/outreach/religion-and-foreign-policy-program" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Religion Leaders</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/localjournalists" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Local Journalists</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li class="main-header__nav-list-item main-header__nav-list-item--with-dropdown">
<a href="/event" class="main-header__nav-list-item-link">Events</a>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown">
<button class="main-header__nav-dropdown-toggle"></button>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-container">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-featured">
<div class="main-header__featured">
<div class="main-header__featured-title">Featured</div>
<div class="main-header__featured-content">
<section class="card-article event card-article--with-thumbnail">
<div class="card-article__container">
<p class="card-article__topic-tag">
<a href="/americas/united-states" class="card-article__topic-tag-link">
United States
</a>
</p>
<div class="card-article__link-outer-wrapper">
<a href="/event/c-peter-mccolough-series-international-economics-tom-barkin " class="card-article__link">
<div class="card-article__info">
<p class="card-article__title clamp-js" data-clamp-lines="4">C. Peter McColough Series on International Economics With Tom Barkin</p>
<div class="card-article__image">
<span class="card-article__icon"> <svg viewBox="0 0 15 15" class="icon icon-play" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
<title>Play</title>
<path d="M0 15V0l15 7.5z" class="icon-fill" fill="none"/>
</svg>
</span>
<div class="card-article__image-cover bg-image-switch" data-bg-image=//cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/styles/card_landscape_xl/public/image/2025/03/2024-02-08T194800Z_791086772_RC2HY5A0Z5NM_RTRMADP_3_USA-FED-BARKIN.JPG.webp></div>
</div>
<div class="card-article__caption">
<div class="card-article__caption_wrapper">
<span class="card-article__caption_credit"></span>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</a>
</div>
<div class="card-description card-article__dek clamp-js" data-clamp-lines="4">Richmond Fed President Tom Barkin discusses U.S. monetary policy and the outlook for inflation and labor markets.
The C. Peter McColough Series on International Economics brings the world’s foremo…</div>
<p class="card-article__metadata">
<span class="card-article__publication-type">Virtual Event</span>
<span class="card-article__authors">
with Tom Barkin and John Lipsky</span>
<span class="card-article__date"> April 1, 2025</span>
</p>
</div>
</section>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-list">
<ul class="main-header__secondary-nav-list">
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/event-series" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Lectureship Series</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/conference-call-series" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Webinars & Conference Calls</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/meeting-types/symposia" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Symposia</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li class="main-header__nav-list-item main-header__nav-list-item--with-dropdown main-header__nav-list-item--initiatives">
<a href="#" class="main-header__nav-list-item-link">Related Sites</a>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown">
<button class="main-header__nav-dropdown-toggle"></button>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu main-header__nav-dropdown-menu--without-featured">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-container">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-list">
<ul class="main-header__secondary-nav-list">
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="https://www.cfr.org/councilofcouncils" target="_blank" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link">
<img data-src="/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-coc-icon.png" loading="lazy" alt="Council of Councils" class="lazyload main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-icon" />
Council of Councils
</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="https://www.thinkglobalhealth.org" target="_blank" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link">
<img data-src="/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-tgh-icon.png" loading="lazy" alt="Think Global Health" class="lazyload main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-icon" />
Think Global Health
</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="https://cfrorg.store" target="_blank" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link">
<img data-src="/themes/custom/cfr_theme/src/assets/images/cfr-store.png" loading="lazy" alt="Online Store" class="lazyload main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-icon" />
Online Store
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li class="main-header__nav-list-item main-header__nav-list-item--with-dropdown main-header__nav-list-item--more">
<a href="#" class="main-header__nav-list-item-link">More</a>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown">
<button class="main-header__nav-dropdown-toggle"></button>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu main-header__nav-dropdown-menu--without-featured">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-container">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-list">
<ul class="main-header__secondary-nav-list">
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/research-analysis" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link">
Research & Analysis
</a>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown">
<button class="main-header__nav-dropdown-toggle"></button>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-container">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-list">
<ul class="main-header__secondary-nav-list">
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/experts" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Experts</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/programs" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Centers & Programs</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/publications" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Books & Reports</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/blog" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Blogs</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/task-force-program" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Task Force Program</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/fellowships" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Fellowships</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/outreach" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link">
Communities
</a>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown">
<button class="main-header__nav-dropdown-toggle"></button>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-container">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-list">
<ul class="main-header__secondary-nav-list">
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/membership" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Members</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/media" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Media</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/congressional-program" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Congress</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/academic/cfr-academic" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Students and Educators</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/state-and-local" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">State & Local Officials</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/outreach/religion-and-foreign-policy-program" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Religion Leaders</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/localjournalists" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Local Journalists</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/event" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link">
Events
</a>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown">
<button class="main-header__nav-dropdown-toggle"></button>
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-container">
<div class="main-header__nav-dropdown-menu-list">
<ul class="main-header__secondary-nav-list">
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/event-series" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Lectureship Series</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/conference-call-series" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Webinars & Conference Calls</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item">
<a href="/meeting-types/symposia" class="main-header__secondary-nav-list-item-link macro-utils__link-to">Symposia</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="main-header__nav-corporate">
<ul class="main-header__nav-corporate-list">
<li class="main-header__nav-corporate-list-item">
<a href="https://link.cfr.org/join/66n/signup&hash=2d4c5929e9e04cc42f5cd375fb8dcfb1" target="_blank" rel="noopener" class="main-header__nav-corporate-link main-header__nav-corporate-link-- js-sailthru-newsletter">
Newsletters
</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__nav-corporate-list-item">
<a href="https://education.cfr.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" class="main-header__nav-corporate-link">
CFR Education
</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__nav-corporate-list-item">
<a href="https://foreignaffairs.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener" class="main-header__nav-corporate-link main-header__nav-corporate-link--fa">
Foreign Affairs
</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__controls-list-item main-header__controls-list-item--user">
<a href="/member/login" class="main-header__controls-link">
<svg viewBox="0 0 22 22" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="main-header__controls-icon-user icon-user-circle-outlined" fill="none">
<path class="icon-stroke" stroke="none" stroke-width="1.85" d="M11 21c5.523 0 10-4.477 10-10S16.523 1 11 1 1 5.477 1 11s4.477 10 10 10z"/>
<path class="icon-stroke" stroke="none" stroke-width="1.85" d="M11 12.25a3.25 3.25 0 100-6.5 3.25 3.25 0 000 6.5zM5.468 19.153v-1.6A2.553 2.553 0 018.021 15h5.958a2.553 2.553 0 012.553 2.553v1.702"/>
</svg>
</a>
</li>
<li class="main-header__nav-corporate-list-item main-header__nav-corporate-list-item--essay-member">
<a href="/member/login" class="main-header__nav-corporate-link">
Member Login
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</header>
</div>
<div id="block-newsalert">
</div>
</div>
</header>
<main role="main">
<a id="main-content" tabindex="-1"></a>
<div class="layout-content">
<div id="block-cfr-theme-messages">
</div>
<div class="slim-nav slim-nav__wrapper slim-nav__wrapper__logged-out">
<div class="slim-nav__container slim-nav__container__article">
<div class="slim-nav__cell slim-nav__logo">
<a href="/"> <svg viewBox="0 0 24 31" class="icon icon-logo-monogram" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
<title>Logo</title>
<path d="M19.7 1.268C19.7.544 19.188 0 18.34 0c-1.908 0-3.523 2.049-4.418 3.55-1.471 2.463-2.456 6.02-3.235 9.78-.116.56-.545 2.667-.545 2.667H8.254l-.123.652h1.896c-.398 2.261-1.202 6.353-1.711 8.603-.47 2.075-1.063 4.396-2.657 4.988.185-.215.262-.586.262-.83-.001-.602-.497-1.107-1.202-1.107-.867 0-1.367.622-1.373 1.31-.005.739.534 1.298 1.537 1.298 1.97 0 4.832-2.082 6.337-9.018.328-1.516 1.039-5.244 1.039-5.244h1.96l.121-.652h-1.958s.717-3.92 1.43-7.123c.91-4.092 1.932-7.164 3.51-8.11a1.294 1.294 0 0 0-.225.709c0 .711.492 1.203 1.23 1.2.734-.003 1.374-.544 1.374-1.405zm4.178 11.912c0-.519-.368-1.189-1.314-1.189-1.72 0-2.84 2.174-3.33 3.214.165-.741.269-1.368.269-1.853 0-.82-.444-1.281-1.136-1.281-1.588 0-2.766 2.214-2.926 2.541l.4.208c.46-.848.965-1.414 1.356-1.414.248 0 .[scrubbed]-.105.918-.846 3.958-1.383 6.14h1.922s.325-1.197.678-2.385c.737-2.473 1.754-4.278 2.581-4.879a1.22 1.22 0 0 0-.04.338c.004.57.398 1.15 1.193 1.15.9 0 1.397-.678 1.397-1.398zm-18.995.668c0 .63.459 1.096 1.193 1.096.76 0 1.407-.587 1.407-1.422 0-.898-.763-1.572-2.28-1.572C2.277 11.95 0 14.44 0 17.308c0 1.983 1.247 3.261 3.256 3.261 2.21 0 3.359-1.482 3.864-2.243l-.401-.237c-.26.39-1.253 1.641-2.65 1.641-1.244 0-1.887-.905-1.887-2.48 0-2.637 1.463-4.78 3.078-4.78.282 0 .[scrubbed]-.626.147-1.024.653-1.024 1.256z" class="icon-fill" fill="none"/>
</svg>
</a>
</div>
<div class="slim-nav__cell slim-nav__titles-container
slim-nav__titles-container__article">
<div class="slim-nav__cell slim-nav__titles-container__section-title"></div>
<div class="slim-nav__cell slim-nav__titles-container__article-title"><span class="slim-nav__titles-container__article-title__text">Marriage Equality: Global Comparisons</span></div>
</div>
<div class="slim-nav__cell slim-nav__share">
<div class="share-kit share-kit--collapsed share-kit--icon-color-brown share-kit--bg-color-beige share-kit--theme-none"
data-share-anchor=""
data-share-query=""
data-share-name=""
data-share-description=""
data-share-caption=""
data-share-picture=""
data-share-type=""
>
<div class="share-kit__icons">
<button class="share-kit__hotspot share-kit__facebook" onclick="CFR.Share.facebook(this)">
<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-facebook" viewBox="0 0 16 16">
<path d="M16 8.049c0-4.446-3.582-8.05-8-8.05C3.58 0-.002 3.603-.002 8.05c0 4.017 2.926 7.347 6.75 7.951v-5.625h-2.03V8.05H6.75V6.275c0-2.017 1.195-3.131 3.022-3.131.876 0 1.791.157 1.791.157v1.98h-1.009c-.993 0-1.303.621-1.303 1.258v1.51h2.218l-.354 2.326H9.25V16c3.824-.604 6.75-3.934 6.75-7.951z" class="icon-fill"/>
</svg>
</button>
<button class="share-kit__hotspot share-kit__twitter" onclick="CFR.Share.twitter(this)">
<svg viewBox="0 0 1350 1377" class="icon icon-twitter" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
<path d="M714.163 519.284L1160.89 0H1055.03L667.137 450.887L357.328 0H0L468.492 681.821L0 1226.37H105.866L515.491 750.218L842.672 1226.37H1200L714.137 519.284H714.163ZM569.165 687.828L521.697 619.934L144.011 79.6944H306.615L611.412 515.685L658.88 583.579L1055.08 1150.3H892.476L569.165 687.854V687.828Z" fill="none" class="icon-fill" />
</svg>
</button>
<button class="share-kit__hotspot share-kit__linkedin" onclick="CFR.Share.linkedin(this)">
<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-linkedin" viewBox="0 0 16 16">
<path d="M0 1.146C0 .513.526 0 1.175 0h13.65C15.474 0 16 .513 16 1.146v13.708c0 .633-.526 1.146-1.175 1.146H1.175C.526 16 0 15.487 0 14.854V1.146zm4.943 12.248V6.169H2.542v7.225h2.401zm-1.2-8.212c.837 0 1.358-.554 1.358-1.248-.015-.709-.52-1.248-1.342-1.248-.822 0-1.359.54-1.359 1.248 0 .694.521 1.248 1.327 1.248h.016zm4.908 8.212V9.359c0-.216.016-.432.08-.586.173-.431.568-.878 1.232-.878.869 0 1.216.662 1.216 1.634v3.865h2.401V9.25c0-2.22-1.184-3.252-2.764-3.252-1.274 0-1.845.7-2.165 1.193v.025h-.016a5.54 5.54 0 0 1 .016-.025V6.169h-2.4c.03.678 0 7.225 0 7.225h2.4z" class="icon-fill"/>
</svg>
</button>
<button class="share-kit__hotspot share-kit__e-mail-filled" onclick="CFR.Share.email(this)">
<svg viewBox="0 0 23 14" class="icon icon-e-mail-filled" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
<title>Email</title>
<path d="M.915 0l10.258 7.808L21.673 0H.915zm10.258 8.804L0 .297V14h22.615V.297L11.173 8.804z" class="icon-fill" fill="none"/>
</svg>
</button>
</div>
<button type="button" class="share-kit__hotspot share-kit__collapse-btn">
<svg viewBox="0 0 22 24" class="icon icon-share" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
<title>Share</title>
<g class="icon-fill" fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd">
<path d="M8.292 2.255L2.444 8.037V6.47l5.848 5.782A1.103 1.103 0 1 1 6.74 13.82L.893 8.037a1.103 1.103 0 0 1 0-1.568L6.741.686a1.103 1.103 0 1 1 1.55 1.569z"/>
<path d="M19.485 22.766c0-8.01-6.783-14.59-14.988-14.59H1.899a1.103 1.103 0 0 1 0-2.206h2.598c9.409 0 17.194 7.553 17.194 16.796a1.103 1.103 0 1 1-2.206 0z"/>
</g>
</svg>
</button>
</div>
</div>
<div class="slim-nav__cell slim-nav__search search__article ">
<form action="/search" autocomplete="off" class="main-header__search-inline-form">
<input type="search" name="keyword" placeholder="What are you searching for?" class="main-header__search-inline-input main-header__autocomplete slim-nav__search-inline-input" />
<button type="submit" class="main-header__search-slim-nav">
<svg viewBox="0 0 24 24" class="icon icon-search" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
<title>Search</title>
<g class="icon-fill" fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd">
<path d="M10 18a8 8 0 1 0 0-16 8 8 0 0 0 0 16zm0-2a6 6 0 1 1 0-12 6 6 0 0 1 0 12z"/>
<path d="M14.293 15.707l7 7 1.414-1.414-7-7z"/>
</g>
</svg>
</button>
</form>
</div>
</div>
<div class="progress-container">
<div id="progressBar" class="progress-bar"></div>
</div>
</div><article class="cfr-transported-content main-wrapper main-wrapper--backgrounder slim-nav--enabled" data-nid="227998">
<div>
<header class="article-header-backgrounder article-header-backgrounder--with-media-small">
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__content">
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__content-container">
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__series">
<a href="/backgrounders" class="article-header-backgrounder__series-link">Backgrounder</a>
</div>
<h1 class="article-header-backgrounder__title">Marriage Equality: Global Comparisons</h1>
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__description">A growing number of countries are legalizing same-sex marriage amid a steady advance in rights for LGBTQ+ people, but opposition remains strong in many others.
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__media">
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__media-container">
<figure class="article-header-backgrounder__figure">
<img src="//cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/styles/immersive_image_3_2_desktop_2x/public/image/2020/06/samesexmarriage_0.webp" alt="The first known same-sex couple to get married in Northern Ireland addresses the media in February 2020." class="article-header-backgrounder__image" />
<figcaption class="article-header-backgrounder__caption">
The first known same-sex couple to get married in Northern Ireland addresses the media in February 2020.
<span class="article-header-backgrounder__credit">Phil Noble/Reuters</span> </figcaption>
</figure>
</div>
</div>
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__metadata-content">
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__metadata-content-container">
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__metadata article-header-backgrounder__metadata--authors">
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__metadata-header">Written By</div>
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__metadata-body">
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__authors">
<span class="article-header-backgrounder__author">CFR.org Editors</span> </div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__metadata article-header-backgrounder__metadata--date">
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__metadata-header">Updated</div>
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__metadata-body">
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__date">
Last updated December 22, 2022 9:30 am (EST)
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__metadata article-header-backgrounder__metadata--social">
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__metadata-body">
<div class="article-header-backgrounder__social">
<div class="share-kit share-kit--collapsed share-kit--icon-color-brown share-kit--bg-color-beige share-kit--theme-none"
data-share-anchor=""
data-share-query=""
data-share-name="Marriage Equality: Global Comparisons"
data-share-description="A growing number of countries are legalizing same-sex marriage amid a steady advance in rights for LGBTQ+ people, but opposition remains strong in many others.
"
data-share-caption=""
data-share-picture="//cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/image/2020/06/samesexmarriage_0.jpg"
data-share-type="article"
>
<div class="share-kit__icons">
<button class="share-kit__hotspot share-kit__facebook" onclick="CFR.Share.facebook(this)">
<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-facebook" viewBox="0 0 16 16">
<path d="M16 8.049c0-4.446-3.582-8.05-8-8.05C3.58 0-.002 3.603-.002 8.05c0 4.017 2.926 7.347 6.75 7.951v-5.625h-2.03V8.05H6.75V6.275c0-2.017 1.195-3.131 3.022-3.131.876 0 1.791.157 1.791.157v1.98h-1.009c-.993 0-1.303.621-1.303 1.258v1.51h2.218l-.354 2.326H9.25V16c3.824-.604 6.75-3.934 6.75-7.951z" class="icon-fill"/>
</svg>
</button>
<button class="share-kit__hotspot share-kit__twitter" onclick="CFR.Share.twitter(this)">
<svg viewBox="0 0 1350 1377" class="icon icon-twitter" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
<path d="M714.163 519.284L1160.89 0H1055.03L667.137 450.887L357.328 0H0L468.492 681.821L0 1226.37H105.866L515.491 750.218L842.672 1226.37H1200L714.137 519.284H714.163ZM569.165 687.828L521.697 619.934L144.011 79.6944H306.615L611.412 515.685L658.88 583.579L1055.08 1150.3H892.476L569.165 687.854V687.828Z" fill="none" class="icon-fill" />
</svg>
</button>
<button class="share-kit__hotspot share-kit__print-filled" onclick="CFR.Share.print(this)">
<svg viewBox="0 0 17 17" class="icon icon-print-filled" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
<title>Print</title>
<g class="icon-fill" fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd">
<path d="M13.985 4.973V2.92h-2.911V.212a.21.21 0 0 0-.21-.21H3.142a.21.21 0 0 0-.21.21v4.971h10.843a.21.21 0 0 0 .21-.21m2.923 1.062a.202.202 0 0 0-.202-.202H.202A.201.201 0 0 0 0 6.035l.021 7.695c0 .[scrubbed].202h2.085v-4.97c0-.47.382-.853.852-.853h10.63c.47 0 .851.382.851.852v4.971h2.086a.203.203 0 0 0 .202-.202l-.02-7.695z"/>
<path d="M10.774 11.66H6.176a.326.326 0 0 1 0-.65h4.598a.324.324 0 1 1 0 .65m0 2.921H6.176a.326.326 0 0 1 0-.65h4.598a.324.324 0 1 1 0 .65M13.79 8.76H3.16a.201.201 0 0 0-.201.202v7.67c0 .[scrubbed].201H13.79a.203.203 0 0 0 .202-.202v-7.67a.202.202 0 0 0-.202-.202m.195-6.469h-2.08a.21.21 0 0 1-.21-.21V0l2.29 2.29z"/>
</g>
</svg>
</button>
<button class="share-kit__hotspot share-kit__linkedin" onclick="CFR.Share.linkedin(this)">
<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="icon icon-linkedin" viewBox="0 0 16 16">
<path d="M0 1.146C0 .513.526 0 1.175 0h13.65C15.474 0 16 .513 16 1.146v13.708c0 .633-.526 1.146-1.175 1.146H1.175C.526 16 0 15.487 0 14.854V1.146zm4.943 12.248V6.169H2.542v7.225h2.401zm-1.2-8.212c.837 0 1.358-.554 1.358-1.248-.015-.709-.52-1.248-1.342-1.248-.822 0-1.359.54-1.359 1.248 0 .694.521 1.248 1.327 1.248h.016zm4.908 8.212V9.359c0-.216.016-.432.08-.586.173-.431.568-.878 1.232-.878.869 0 1.216.662 1.216 1.634v3.865h2.401V9.25c0-2.22-1.184-3.252-2.764-3.252-1.274 0-1.845.7-2.165 1.193v.025h-.016a5.54 5.54 0 0 1 .016-.025V6.169h-2.4c.03.678 0 7.225 0 7.225h2.4z" class="icon-fill"/>
</svg>
</button>
<button class="share-kit__hotspot share-kit__e-mail-filled" onclick="CFR.Share.email(this)">
<svg viewBox="0 0 23 14" class="icon icon-e-mail-filled" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
<title>Email</title>
<path d="M.915 0l10.258 7.808L21.673 0H.915zm10.258 8.804L0 .297V14h22.615V.297L11.173 8.804z" class="icon-fill" fill="none"/>
</svg>
</URL
GET https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/same-sex-marriage-global-comparisons
Response Headers
Accept-Ranges:bytesAccess-Control-Allow-Headers:x-requested-with, Content-Type, origin, authorization, accept, client-security-tokenAccess-Control-Allow-Methods:POST, GET, OPTIONSAccess-Control-Allow-Origin:*Access-Control-Max-Age:1000Age:83978Cache-Control:public, max-age=86400Cf-Cache-Status:DYNAMICCf-Ray:932dcedbfbf83877-MRUContent-Language:enContent-Type:text/html; charset=utf-8Date:Sat, 19 Apr 2025 16:34:15 GMTLocation:https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/marriage-equality-global-comparisonsServer:cloudflareServer-Timing:cfCacheStatus;desc="DYNAMIC"Set-Cookie:__cf_bm=RvZaIrDSoQfmjXP7C4asvBmitozsOa3x6izPX8DGRtg-1745080455-[scrubbed]-FCTw2kjL1ieGqFut3tkZrEGtA3Q_k9BFo.ymHqCgrQZj4r811K.o2EDhy8LAz6BGRNC0Z_.BwWgSw3qeyn83Zvym_vnKLcDaBK6iLFF2ezo; path=/; expires=Sat, 19-Apr-25 17:04:15 GMT; domain=.cfr.org; HttpOnly; Secure; SameSite=NoneStrict-Transport-Security:max-age=15552000; includeSubDomains; preloadVary:X-Consumer-ID, Cookie, CookieVia:1.1 varnish, 1.1 varnishX-Cache:HIT, HITX-Cache-Hits:9, 6X-Consumer-Id:9e2f7b1b-2018-49c3-abd6-20fa51074864X-Content-Type-Options:nosniffX-Drupal-Cache:MISSX-Generator:Drupal 10 (https://www.drupal.org)X-Pantheon-Styx-Hostname:styx-fe4-b-79d9f55b98-zvr7rX-Redirect-Id:74600X-Robots-Tag:allX-Served-By:cache-chi-klot8100021-CHI, cache-jnb7026-JNBX-Styx-Req-Id:9a45e940-1c78-11f0-a4e1-3ad00243acdaX-Timer:S1745080455.821586,VS0,VE5
Response Body
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8" />
<meta http-equiv="refresh" content="0;url='https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/marriage-equality-global-comparisons'" />
<title>Redirecting to https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/marriage-equality-global-comparisons</title>
</head>
<body>
Redirecting to <a href="https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/marriage-equality-global-comparisons">https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/marriage-equality-global-comparisons</a>.
<script defer src="https://static.cloudflareinsights.com/beacon.min.js/vcd15cbe7772f49c399c6a5babf22c1241717689176015" integrity="sha512-ZpsOmlRQV6y907TI0dKBHq9Md29nnaEIPlkf84rnaERnq6zvWvPUqr2ft8M1aS28oN72PdrCzSjY4U6VaAw1EQ==" data-cf-beacon='{"rayId":"932dcedbfbf83877","version":"2025.4.0-1-g37f21b1","serverTiming":{"name":{"cfExtPri":true,"cfL4":true,"cfSpeedBrain":true,"cfCacheStatus":true}},"token":"fcb7439732304e2382fcdcc9c09ddc01","b":1}' crossorigin="anonymous"></script>
</body>
</html>Resolver
Resolver ASN
AS13335
Resolver IP
172.69.92.71
Resolver Network Name
Cloudflare Inc
Report ID
20250419T163005Z_webconnectivity_MU_23889_n1_Atu7ZAAPF2vJOHt9
Platform
windows
Software Name
ooniprobe-desktop-unattended (3.23.0)
Measurement Engine
ooniprobe-engine (3.23.0)